What are the symptoms of ovarian cancer?

In the early stages, ovarian cancer usually has vague symptoms which are not easy to recognize. In fact, doctors used to think that ovarian cancer had no symptoms (unfortunately, many still do). Even though healthcare professionals are much better at identifying ovarian cancer symptoms these days, patients often attribute their symptoms to other conditions, such as pre-menstrual syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, or a temporary bladder problem.

The main difference between ovarian cancer and other possible disorders is the persistence and gradual worsening of symptoms. While most digestive disorders have fluctuating symptoms, those of ovarian cancer are more constant and steadily advancing.

The following are examples of possible early symptoms of ovarian cancer:

• Pain in the pelvis
• Pain on the lower side of the body
• Pain in the lower stomach
• Back pain
• Indigestion or heartburn
• Feeling full rapidly when eating
• More frequent and urgent urination
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation

As ovarian cancer progresses these symptoms are also possible:

• Nausea
• Weight loss
• Breathlessness
• Fatigue (tiredness)
• Loss of appetite

Ovarian cancer is not a silent killer. A study by the National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre, Australia, found that 83% of women experience at least one symptom of ovarian cancer in the year prior to their diagnosis. The researchers also found that 17% of women waited more than three months after the onset of their symptoms before visiting their doctor, with 8% waiting more than six months. The most common symptoms, experienced by half of the study participants, were abdominal symptoms such as fullness and pain. Bloating, bowel or urinary symptoms were reported by approximately one third of participants.

If you experience bloating, pressure or pain in the abdomen or pelvis that persists for more than a few weeks you should see your doctor immediately. If you have already been to the doctor and ovarian cancer was not diagnosed, but treatment is not relieving symptoms, either see your doctor again or get a second opinion. It is important that the evaluation includes a pelvic examination.

People with close family members who have/had ovarian or breast cancer should see a doctor who is trained to detect ovarian cancer.

Three main types of ovarian cancers (tumors)

Epithelial ovarian cancer is by far the most common form of ovarian cancer. Germ cell and stromal ovarian cancers are much less common. Ovarian cancer can also result from a cancer somewhere else in the body that has spread:

• Epithelial ovarian cancer (epithelial ovarian tumors) - derived from cells on the surface of the ovary. It occurs mainly in adults.


• Germ cell ovarian cancer (germ cell ovarian tumors) - derived from the egg-producing cells within the body of the ovary. This rare type of cancer more commonly affects children and teenage girls.


• Stromal ovarian ovarian (sex cord stromal tumors) - develops within the cells that hold the ovaries together.


• Cancers from other organs in the body can spread to the ovaries - metastatic cancers - a metastatic cancer is one that spreads from where it first arose as a primary tumor to other locations in the body.

What Is Ovarian Cancer?

Ovarian cancer is any cancerous growth that may occur in different parts of the ovary. The majority of ovarian cancers arise from the epithelium (outer lining) of the ovary. According to the American Cancer Society it is the 8th most common cancer among women in the USA (excluding non-melanoma skin cancers). In the UK ovarian cancer is the fifth most common cancer among females, after breast cancer, bowel cancer, lung cancer and uterine cancer (cancer of the uterus).

Approximately 5,500 women in the UK and 21,000 women in the USA are diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year. Worldwide, around 140,000 women die of ovarian cancer every year.

Tragically, the overall five year survival rate is only 46 per cent in most developed countries (it is lower for more advanced stages). However, according to the National Cancer Institute, if diagnosis is made early, before the tumor has spread, the five year survival rate is nearer 93 per cent. In 2009 scientists in the US said that current tests for diagnosing ovarian cancer are not good enough .
Even modern screening tests for ovarian cancer, which include a blood test for the CA 125 marker, combined with ultrasound, often result in unnecessary surgery and "..are failing to catch early signs of the disease..", a study at the University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Cancer Center revealed.

How is lymphoma treated?

Cancer treatment depends on the type of cancer, the stage of the cancer (how much it has spread), age, health status, whether or not one has received previous cancer treatment, and additional personal characteristics. Lymphoma treatment is usually designed to result in complete remission of the disease - a state where there may be lymphoma cells in the body, but they are undetectable and cause no symptoms. Common lymphoma treatments include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and biological therapy.

The ultimate goal of lymphoma treatment is durable remission, or remission that lasts a long time. If the cancer comes back, this is called recurrence. After therapy the patient may see improvement (lymphoma shrinks), a stable disease (lymphoma is the same size), progression (lymphoma worsens), or a refractory disease (the lymphoma resists treatment). Patients may also undergo induction therapy that is designed to induce remission, salvage therapy that is designed to take over for a failing treatment, or maintenance therapy that is treatment meant to prevent recurrence.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy utilizes chemicals that interfere with the cell division process - damaging proteins or DNA - so that cancer cells will commit suicide. These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not necessarily just cancer cells), but normal cells usually can recover from any chemical-induced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is generally used to treat cancer that has spread or metastasized because the medicines travel throughout the entire body. Treatment occurs in cycles so the body has time to heal between doses. However, there are still common side effects such as hair loss, nausea, fatigue, and vomiting. Combination therapies often include multiple types of chemotherapy or chemotherapy combined with other treatment options.

Radiation

Radiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys cancer by focusing high-energy rays on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the molecules that make up the cancer cells and leads them to commit suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energy gamma-rays that are emitted from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a special machine. Radiotherapy can be used as a standalone treatment to shrink a tumor or destroy cancer cells, and it is also used in combination with other cancer treatments.

Side effects of radiation therapy may include mild skin changes resembling sunburn or suntan, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. Patients also tend to lose their appetites and have trouble maintaining weight, but most side effects subside a few weeks after completing treatment.

What are the symptoms of lymphoma?

Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is located, where it has spread, and how big the tumor is. Lymphoma usually first presents with swelling in the neck, underarm, or groin. Additional swelling may occur where other lymph nodes are located such as in the spleen. In general, enlarged lymph nodes can encroach on the space of blood vessels, nerves, or the stomach, leading to swollen arms and legs, to tingling and numbness, or to feelings of being full, respectively.
Lymphoma symptoms also include nonspecific symptoms such as fever, chills, unexplained weight loss, night sweats, lethargy, and itching

What causes lymphoma?

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer results. Scientists do not know exactly what causes lymphoma, but they have identified several potential risk factors.

Genetics

Lymphoma can be the result of a genetic predisposition that is inherited from family members. It is possible to be born with certain genetic mutations or a fault in a gene that makes one statistically more likely to develop cancer later in life.

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are a class of substances that are directly responsible for damaging DNA, promoting or aiding cancer. Exposure to certain pesticides, herbicides, and solvents such as benzene has been associated with lymphoma. Similarly, black hair dye has been linked to higher rates of NHL. When our bodies are exposed to carcinogens, free radicals are formed that try to steal electrons from other molecules in the body. These free radicals damage cells, affecting their ability to function normally, and the result can be cancerous growths.

Other medical factors

As we age, there is an increase in the number of possible cancer-causing mutations in our DNA. The risk of NHL increases as we age, and HL is most common between ages 16-34 and 55 years and older. Additional medical conditions that have been associated with higher lymphoma rates include infection with HIV, human T-lymphocytic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), Epstein-Barr virus, Helicobacter pylori, or hepatitis B or C; autoimmune disease (such as lupus); diseases that require therapies that suppress the immune system; and any other immunodeficiency diseases.

What Is Lymphoma?

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that begins in immune system cells called lymphocytes. Like other cancers, lymphoma occurs when lymphocytes are in a state of uncontrolled cell growth and multiplication. Lymphocytes are white blood cells that move throughout the body in a fluid called lymph. They are transported by a network of vessels that make up the lymphatic system, part of the immune system. The lymphatic system - whose job it is to fight infections or anything else that threatens the body - is also comprised of lymph nodes that exist throughout the body to filter the lymph that flows through them. The lymph nodes swell and tenderize when a large number of microbial organisms collect inside of them, indicating local infection. There are two primary types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. Both are designed to recognize and destroy infections and abnormal cells. B cells produce proteins that travel throughout the body, attaching themselves to infectious organisms and abnormal cells and alerting the immune system that the pathogen needs to be destroyed. T cells actually kill the pathogens directly and serve a function in regulating the immune system from over- or under-activity.

function of the lymph nodes?

Lymphoma occurs when lymphocyte B or T cells transform and begin growing and multiplying uncontrollably. Abnormal lymphocytes collect in one or more lymph nodes or in lymph tissues such as the spleen or tonsils, and eventually they form a mass of cells called a tumor. Tumors grow and invade the space of surrounding tissues and organs, depriving them of oxygen and nutrients. If abnormal lymphocytes travel from one lymph node to the next or to other organs, the cancer can spread or metastasize. Lymphoma development outside of lymphatic tissue is called extranodal disease. In the United States each year, some 54,000 people are diagnosed with NHL and 7,000 are diagnosed HL. It is the most common type of blood cancer in the US. The European Union sees over 50,000 cases of NHL every year.

Treatments for leukemia

As the various types of leukemias affect patients differently, their treatments depend on what type of leukemia they have. The type of treatment will also depend on the patient's age and his state of health. In order to get the most effective treatment the patient should get treatment at a center where doctors have experience and are well trained in treating leukemia patients. As treatment has improved, the aim of virtually all health care professionals should be complete remission - that the cancer goes away completely for a minimum of five years after treatment. Treatment for patients with acute leukemias should start as soon as possible - this usually involves induction therapy with chemotherapy, and takes place in a hospital.

When a patient is in remission he will still need consolidation therapy or post induction therapy. This may involve chemotherapy, as well as a bone marrow transplant (allogeneic stem cell If a patient has Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) his treatment should start as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed. He will be given a drug, probably Gleevec (imatinib mesylate), which blocks the BCR-ABL cancer gene. Gleevec stops the CML from getting worse, but does not cure it. There are other drugs, such as Sprycel (dasatinib) and Tarigna (nilotinb), which also block the BCR-ABL cancer gene. Patients who have not had success with Gleevec are usually given Sprycel and Tarigna. All three drugs are taken orally. A bone marrow transplant is the only current way of curing a patient with CML. The younger the patient is the more likely the transplant will be successful.

Patients with Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) may not receive any treatment for a long time after diagnosis. Those who do will normally be given chemotherapy or monoclonal antibody therapy. Some patients with CLL may benefit from allogeneic stem cell transplantation (bone marrow transplant). All leukemia patients, regardless of what type they have or had, will need to be checked regularly by their doctors after the cancer has gone (in remission). They will undergo exams and blood tests. The doctors will occasionally test their bone marrow. As time passes and the patient continues to remain free of leukemia the doctor may decide to lengthen the intervals between tests. transplantation).

What causes leukemia?

Experts say that different leukemias have different causes. The following are either known causes, or strongly suspected causes:

• Artificial ionizing radiation
• Viruses - HTLV-1 (human T-lymphotropic virus) and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
• Benzene and some petrochemicals
• Alkylating chemotherapy agents used in previous cancers
• Maternal fetal transmission (rare)
• Hair dyes
• Genetic predisposition - some studies researching family history and looking at twins have indicated that some people have a higher risk of developing leukemia because of a single gene or multiple genes.
• Down syndrome - people with Down syndrome have a significantly higher risk of developing leukemia, compared to people who do not have Down syndrome. Experts say that because of this, people with certain chromosomal abnormalities may have a higher risk.
• Electromagnetic energy - studies indicate there is not enough evidence to show that ELF magnetic (not electric) fields that exist currently might cause leukemia. The IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) says that studies which indicate there is a risk tend to be biased and unreliable.

Types of leukemia

Chronic and Acute

Experts divide leukemia into four large groups, each of which can be Acute, which is a rapidly progressing disease that results in the accumulation of immature, useless cells in the marrow and blood, or Chronic, which progresses more slowly and allows more mature, useful cells to be made. In other words, acute leukemia crowds out the good cells more quickly than chronic leukemia.

Lymphocytic and Myelogenous

Leukemias are also subdivided into the type of affected blood cell. If the cancerous transformation occurs in the type of marrow that makes lymphocytes, the disease is called lymphocytic leukemia. A lymphocyte is a kind of white blood cell inside your vertebrae immune system. If the cancerous change occurs in the type of marrow cells that go on to produce red blood cells, other types of white cells, and platelets, the disease is called myelogenous leukemia.

To recap, there are two groups of two groups - four main types of leukemia, as you can see in the illustration below:


Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) - This is the most common type of leukemia among young children, although adults can get it as well, especially those over the age of 65. Survival rates of at least five years range from 85% among children and 50% among adults. The following are all subtypes of this leukemia: precursor B acute lymphoblastic leukemia, precursor T acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Burkitt's leukemia, and acute biphenotypic leukemia.

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) - This is most common among adults over 55, although younger adults can get it as well. CLL hardly ever affects children. The majority of patients with CLL are men, over 60%. 75% of treated CLL patients survive for over five years. Experts say CLL is incurable. A more aggressive form of CLL is B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia.

Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML - AML is more common among adults than children, and affects males significantly more often than females. Patients are treated with chemotherapy. 40% of treated patients survive for over 5 years. The following are subtypes of AMS - acute promyelocytic leukemia, acute myeloblastic leukemia, and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.

Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) - The vast majority of patients are adults. 90% of treated patients survive for over 5 years. Gleevec (imatinib) is commonly used to treat CML, as well as some other drugs. Chronic monocytic leukemia is a subtype of CML.

What Is Leukemia

The word Leukemia comes from the Greek leukos which means "white" and aima which means "blood". It is cancer of the blood or bone marrow (which produces blood cells). A person who has leukemia suffers from an abnormal production of blood cells, generally leukocytes (white blood cells). The DNA of immature blood cells, mainly white cells, becomes damaged in some way. This abnormality causes the blood cells to grow and divide chaotically. Normal blood cells die after a while and are replaced by new cells which are produced in the bone marrow. The abnormal blood cells do not die so easily, and accumulate, occupying more and more space. As more and more space is occupied by these faulty blood cells there is less and less space for the normal cells - and the sufferer becomes ill. Quite simply, the bad cells crowd out the good cells in the blood. In order to better understand what goes on we need to have a look at what the bone marrow does.

Lung cancer treatments

Lung cancer treatments depend on the type of cancer, the stage of the cancer (how much it has spread), age, health status, and additional personal characteristics. As there is usually no single treatment for cancer, patients often receive a combination of therapies and palliative care. The main lung cancer treatments are surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation. However, there also have been recent developments in the fields of immunotherapy, hormone therapy, and gene therapy.

Surgery

Surgery is the oldest known treatment for cancer. If a cancer is in stage I or II and has not metastasized, it is possible to completely cure a patient by surgically removing the tumor and the nearby lymph nodes. After the disease has spread, however, it is nearly impossible to remove all of the cancer cells.

Lung cancer surgery is performed by a specially trained thoracic surgeon. After removing the tumor and the surrounding margin of tissue, the margin is further studied to see if cancer cells are present. If no cancer is found in the tissue surrounding the tumor, it is considered a "negative margin." A "positive margin" may require the surgeon to remove more of the lung tissue.

Lung cancer surgery can be curative or palliative. Curative surgery aims to cure a patient with early stage lung cancer by removing all of the cancerous tissue. Palliative surgery aims to remove an obstruction or open an airway, making the patient more comfortable but not necessarily removing the cancer.

Surgery carries side effects - most notably pain and infection. Lung cancer surgery is an invasive procedure that can cause harm to the surrounding body parts. Doctors will usually provide several options for alleviating any pain from surgery. Antibiotics are commonly used to prevent infections that may occur at the site of the wound or elsewhere inside the body.

Radiation

Radiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys or shrinks lung cancer tumors by focusing high-energy rays on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the molecules that make up the cancer cells and leads them to commit suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energy gamma-rays that are emitted from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a special machine. Radiation can be used as the main treatment for lung cancer, to kill remaining cells after surgery, or to kill cancer cells that have metastasized.

Early radiation treatments caused severe side-effects because the energy beams would damage normal, healthy tissue, but technologies have improved so that beams can be more accurately targeted. Radiation oncologists can focus the radiation in precise locations in the body for certain lengths of time, reducing the risk of damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Treatments occur intermittently over weeks or months depending on the size and extent of the tumor, the dosage of radiation, and how much damage is being done to noncancerous tissue.

Common side effects of radiation therapy include fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite, hair loss, and skin affectations that cause skin to become dry, irritated, and sensitive.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy utilizes strong chemicals that interfere with the cell division process - damaging proteins or DNA - so that cancer cells will commit suicide. These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not just cancer cells), but normal cells usually can recover from any chemical-induced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is considered systemic because its medicines travel throughout the entire body, killing the original tumor cells as well as cancer cells that have spread throughout the body.

A medical oncologist will usually prescribe chemotherapy drugs for lung cancer to be taken intravenously, but there are also drugs available in tablet, capsule, and liquid form. Chemotherapy treatment occurs in cycles so the body has time to heal between doses, and dosages are determined by the type of lung cancer, the type of drug, and how the person responds to treatment. Medicines may be administered daily, weekly, or monthly, and can continue for months or even years.

Combination therapies often include multiple types of chemotherapy, and chemotherapy is also given as adjuvant therapy as a complement to surgery and radiation. Adjuvant therapy is designed to reduce the risk of cancer recurrence after surgery and killing any cancer cells that exist after surgery. Chemotherapy can be given before surgery, called neo-adjuvant therapy, to shrink tumors and to make surgery more successful.

Chemotherapy carries several common side effects, but they depend on the type of chemotherapy and the health of the patient. These include nausea and vomiting, appetite loss, diarrhea, hair loss, fatigue from anemia, infections, bleeding, and mouth sores. Many of these side effects are only temporarily felt during treatment, and several drugs exist to help patients cope with the symptoms.

lung cancer diagnosed and staged

Physicians use information revealed by symptoms as well as several other procedures in order to diagnose lung cancer. Common imaging techniques include chest X-rays, bronchoscopy (a thin tube with a camera on one end), CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans. Physicians will also conduct a physical examination, a chest examination, and an analysis of blood in the sputum. All of these procedures are designed to detect where the tumor is located and what additional organs may be affected by it.

Although the above diagnostic techniques provided important information, extracting cancer cells and looking at them under a microscope is the only absolute way to diagnose lung cancer. This procedure is called a biopsy. If the biopsy confirms lung cancer, a pathologist will determine whether it is non-small cell lung cancer or small cell lung cancer.

After a diagnosis is made, an oncologist will determine the stage of the cancer by finding out how far the cancer has spread. The stage determines which choices will be available for treatment and informs prognosis. The most common cancer staging method is called the TNM system. T (1-4) indicates the size and direct extent of the primary tumor, N (0-3) indicates the degree to which the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes, and M (0-1) indicates whether the cancer has metastasized to other organs in the body. A small tumor that has not spread to lymph nodes or distant organs may be staged as (T1, N0, M0), for example.

For non-small cell lung cancer, TNM descriptions lead to a simpler categorization of stages. These stages are labeled from I to IV, where lower numbers indicate earlier stages where the cancer has spread less. More specifically:

• Stage I is when the tumor is found only in one lung and in no lymph nodes.
• Stage II is when the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes surrounding the infected lung.
• Stage IIIa is when the cancer has spread to lymph nodes around the trachea, chest wall, and diaphragm, on the same side as the infected lung.
• Stage IIIb is when the cancer has spread to lymph nodes on the other lung or in the neck.
• Stage IV is when the cancer has spread throughout the rest of the body and other parts of the lungs.

Small cell lung cancer has two stages: limited or extensive. In the limited stage, the tumor exists in one lung and in nearby lymph nodes. In the extensive stage, the tumor has infected the other lung as well as other organs in the body.

What are the symptoms of lung cancer?

Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is located, where it has spread, and how big the tumor is. Lung cancer symptoms may take years before appearing, usually after the disease is in an advanced stage.

Many symptoms of lung cancer affect the chest and air passages. These include:

• Persistent or intense coughing
• Pain in the chest shoulder, or back from coughing
• Changes in color of the mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways (sputum)
• Difficulty breathing and swallowing
• Hoarseness of the voice
• Harsh sounds while breathing (stridor)
• Chronic bronchitis or pneumonia
• Coughing up blood, or blood in the sputum

If the lung cancer spreads, or metastasizes, additional symptoms can present themselves in the newly affected area. Swollen or enlarged lymph nodes are common and likely to be present early. If cancer spreads to the brain, patients may experience vertigo, headaches, or seizures. In addition, the liver may become enlarged and cause jaundice and bones can become painful, brittle, and broken. It is also possible for the cancer to infect the adrenal glands resulting in hormone level changes.

As lung cancer cells spread and use more of the body's energy, it is possible to present symptoms that may also be associated with many other ailments. These include:

• Fever
• Fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Pain in joints or bones
• Problems with brain function and memory
• Swelling in the neck or face
• General weakness
• Bleeding and blood clots

What is Lung Cancer?

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth, and lung cancer occurs when this uncontrolled cell growth begins in one or both lungs. Rather than developing into healthy, normal lung tissue, these abnormal cells continue dividing and form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors. Tumors interfere with the main function of the lung, which is to provide the bloodstream with oxygen to be carried to the entire body. If a tumor stays in one spot and demonstrates limited growth, it is generally considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when the cancer cells migrate to other parts of the body through the blood or lymph system. When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a more serious condition that is very difficult to treat.

Lung cancer is called "primary" if the cancer originates in the lungs and "secondary" if it originates elsewhere in the body but has metastasized to the lungs. These two types are considered different cancers from diagnostic and treatment perspectives.

In 2007, about 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 29% of all cancer deaths were due to lung cancer. It is the number one cause of death from cancer every year and the second most diagnosed after breast and prostate cancers (for women and men, respectively). Lung cancer is usually found in older persons because it develops over a long period of time.

What Are The Pancreatic Cancer Treatment Options

Surgery

Surgery may be used to remove all or part of the pancreas. If a cancer has not metastasized, it is possible to completely cure a patient by surgically removing the cancer from the body. After the disease has spread, however, it is nearly impossible to remove all of the cancer cells.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy utilizes chemicals that interfere with the cell division process - damaging proteins or DNA - so that cancer cells will commit suicide. These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not necessarily just cancer cells), but normal cells can usually recover from any chemical-induced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is generally used to treat cancer that has spread or metastasized because the medicines travel throughout the entire body. Treatment occurs in cycles so the body has time to heal between doses. However, there are still common side effects such as hair loss, nausea, fatigue, and vomiting. Combination therapies often include multiple types of chemotherapy or chemotherapy combined with other treatment options.

Radiation

Radiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys cancer by focusing high-energy rays on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the molecules that make up the cancer cells and leads them to commit suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energy gamma-rays that are emitted from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a special machine. Radiotherapy can be used as a standalone treatment to shrink a tumor or destroy cancer cells, and it is also used in combination with other cancer treatments.

Radiation treatments for pancreatic cancer are usually given 5 days a week for 5 to 6 weeks. Patients may receive radiation treatment in addition to surgery, chemotherapy, or other treatments. In addition, radiation therapy can be palliative, serving to relieve pain or digestive problems when the common bile duct or duodenum is blocked.

How Is Pancreatic Cancer Diagnosed-Part 4

In order to diagnose pancreatic cancer, physicians will request a complete physical exam as well as personal and family medical histories. The way in which the cancer presents itself will differ depending on whether the tumor is in the head or the tail of the pancreas. Tail tumors present with pain and weight loss while head tumors present with steatorrhea, weight loss, and jaundice. Doctors also look for recent onset of atypical diabetes mellitus, Trousseau's sign, and recent pancreatitis.

In general, when making a pancreatic cancer diagnosis, physicians pay special attention to common symptoms such as abdominal or back pain, weight loss, poor appetite, tiredness, irritability, digestive problems, gallbladder enlargement, blood clots (deep venous thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism), fatty tissue abnormalities, diabetes, swelling of lymph nodes, diarrhea, steatorrhea, and jaundice.

It is also common for doctors to administer blood, urine, and stool tests. Blood tests can detect a chemical called carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) as well as CA 19-9 - a chemical released into the blood by pancreatic cancer cells. Liver function tests check for bile duct blockage.

Several imaging techniques are employed in order to see if cancer exists and to find out how far it has spread. Common imaging tests include:

• Ultrasound - to visualize tumor
• Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) - thin tube with a camera and light on one end
• Abdominal computerized tomography (CT) scans - to visualize tumor
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) - to x-ray the common bile duct
• Angiogram - to x-ray blood vessels
• Barium swallows to x-ray the upper gastrointestinal tract
• (MRI) - to visualize tumor
• Positron emission tomography (PET) scans - useful to detect if disease has spread

The only absolute way to make a cancer diagnosis is to remove a small sample of the tumor and look at it under the microscope in a procedure called a biopsy. A fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy is the most commonly used method. A thin needle is inserted into the pancreas through the skin, and the pathologist uses CT scan or ultrasound images as a guide. Another type is the brush biopsy performed during ERCP to gather cells. A laparotomy is sometimes ordered to determine the stage, or extent, of the disease because it provides access to a large part of the abdominal cavity.

What is Pancreatic Cancer-The Symptoms -Part 3

Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is located, where it has spread, and how big the tumor is. Pancreatic cancer is often called a "silent" disease because it rarely shows early symptoms and presents non-specific later symptoms. Tumors of the pancreas cancers are usually too small to cause symptoms. However, when the cancer grows, symptoms include

• Pain in the upper abdomen from the tumor pushing against nerves
• A painless yellowing of the skin and eyes and darkening of the urine called jaundice, created when the cancer interferes with the bile duct and the liver.
• Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting
• Significant weight loss and weakness
• Acholic stool (pale or grey stool) and steatorrhea (excess fat in stool)

These symptoms of pancreatic cancer have numerous other causes, making it difficult to diagnose the disease before it is in an advanced stage.

Cancers of the pancreas are also associated with Trousseau's sign - spontaneous blood clots formed in the portal blood vessels, deep veins of the arms and legs, or other superficial veins. Clinical depression is another symptom that is sometimes reported before the cancer is diagnosed.

If the cancer spreads, or metastasizes, additional symptoms can present themselves in the newly affected area. Symptoms of metastasis ultimately depend on the location to which the cancer has spread.

Islet cell or neuroendocrine cancers of the pancreas may cause the organ to produce too much insulin or hormones. This may lead to weak or dizzy feelings, chills, muscle spasms, or diarrhea.

What Is Pancreatic Cancer?-Part 2

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth, and pancreatic cancer occurs when this uncontrolled cell growth begins in the pancreas. Rather than developing into healthy, normal pancreas tissue, these abnormal cells continue dividing and form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors. Tumors then interfere with the main functions of the pancreas. If a tumor stays in one spot and demonstrates limited growth, it is generally considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when the cancer cells migrate to other parts of the body through the blood or lymph systems. When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a more serious condition that is very difficult to treat.

In the United States each year, over 30,000 people are diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. Europe sees more than 60,000 diagnoses each year. Because pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed late into its development, the five-year survival rate after diagnosis is less than 5%.

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What is Pancreatic Cancer? Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms and Causes-Part1

What Is The Pancreas?

The pancreas is a 6-inch long organ located behind the stomach in the back of the abdomen. It is spongy and shaped somewhat like a fish, extended horizontally across the abdomen. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen where the stomach is attached to the first part of the small intestine (the duodenum). The tail of the pancreas - its narrowest part - extends to the left side of the abdomen next to the spleen.

The pancreas contains exocrine and endocrine glands that create pancreatic juices, hormones, and insulin. Pancreatic juices, or enzymes, made by the exocrine glands are released into the intestines by way of a series of ducts in order to help digest fat, proteins, and carbohydrates. Over 95% of the pancreas is made up of exocrine glands and ducts. The endocrine cells are arranged in small clusters called islets of Langerhans, which release insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream. These two hormones manage levels of sugar in the blood. When they are not working properly, the result is often diabetes.

What is Cancer? What Causes Cancer?

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. There are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is initially affected.

Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream). Tumors can grow and interfere with the digestive, nervous, and circulatory systems, and they can release hormones that alter body function. Tumors that stay in one spot and demonstrate limited growth are generally considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when two things occur:

1. a cancerous cell manages to move throughout the body using the blood or lymph systems, destroying healthy tissue in a process called invasion
2. that cell manages to divide and grow, making new blood vessels to feed itself in a process called angiogenesis.

When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a serious condition that is very difficult to treat.

In 2007, cancer claimed the lives of about 7.6 million people in the world. Physicians and researchers who specialize in the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer are called oncologists.

Researching The Cause Of Programmed Cell Death

Walter and Eliza Hall Institute researchers have put an end to a 10-year debate over which form of a molecular messenger called Fas ligand is responsible for killing cells during programmed cell death (also called apoptosis).

Apoptosis is an important process in human biology as it removes unwanted and dangerous cells from our bodies, protecting us against cancer development and diseases where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, such as in lupus or insulin-dependent diabetes.

This cell death process can be activated by proteins on the surface of cells. The most prominent of these cell surface proteins is Fas ligand, which exists in two forms - membrane-bound or secreted - and binds to a surface receptor called Fas. Professor Andreas Strasser, co-head of the institute's Molecular Genetics of Cancer division (with Professor Jerry Adams), has been looking to settle a decade-long scientific debate by investigating whether membrane-bound Fas ligand, secreted Fas ligand, or both, cause cell death.

"There has been a lot of debate among the scientific community over which of the forms causes cell death but also which of the forms may induce an inflammatory response," Professor Strasser said. "What we have shown is that it is the membrane-bound Fas ligand that is essential for cell death and is therefore the body's guardian against lymphadenopathy (the swelling of lymph nodes), autoimmunity and cancer."

Professor Strasser's research, done in collaboration with Dr Lorraine O'Reilly and Ms Lin Tai from the Molecular Genetics of Cancer division and Dr Lorraine Robb from the Cancer and Haematology division, has been published in the international journal Nature.

The research also demonstrated that although secreted Fas ligand does not have a role in cell killing, too much secreted Fas can promote tumour development and autoimmunity.

"In certain autoimmune conditions and types of lymphoma/leukaemia there is massive over-production of secreted Fas ligand. Since our research shows that secreted Fas is pro-inflammatory, and therefore detrimental, and since the aforementioned disease states are characterised by inflammatory tissue destruction, it may be possible to alleviate some of the manifestations of these diseases by neutralising the secreted Fas ligand with antibodies or soluble receptors," Professor Strasser said.

Now the roles of membrane-bound and secreted Fas ligand have been clearly defined, Professor Strasser's team is investigating the molecular pathways that are activated by a surplus of secreted Fas ligand and their role in autoimmune conditions and lymphomas/leukaemias.

The research was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, the US Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, the National Institutes of Health and the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation.

Source:
Penny Fannin
Walter and Eliza Hall Institute

Leukaemias and lymphomas

Leukaemias and lymphomas are cancers which affect the cells which are part of the fluids circulating around the body.

Leukaemias affect certain blood cells, particularly the white cells, or "leukocytes" which help fight off infections and disease.

And lymphomas are cancers of the lymphatic system, a network of vessels which form part of the body's immune system, and carry other infection-fighting cells called "lymphocytes", as well as draining dead cells away from the tissues.

There are several different types of leukaemia, classed mainly according to the way the cancer develops, and the variety of white blood cells they affect.

There are two principal kinds of lymphoma - Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's - the latter is more common, and also slightly harder to treat.

Professor Peter Johnson, an expert in lymphomas from the University of Southampton, who carries out work for Cancer Research UK is hopeful that new chemotherapy and radiotherapy techniques will help improve survival rates in lymphoma.

He said: "The sorts of treatment we are investigating in the future centre around how we can stir the body's immune system into recognising that the lymphoma is there.

"This we think is a very promising form of new treatment."

Migraines 'mean less cancer risk'

Women who suffer regular migraines may have the comfort of knowing they face a much lower risk of breast cancer, say US researchers.

The discovery points to the potential importance of hormone levels in both.

The study of 3,412 women suggests a 30% lower risk for people with a history of disabling headaches.

However, the researchers, from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, warned more work was needed to confirm the link.