What treatments are available for breast cancer

You need to see a doctor if you notice changes in your breast. Not all breast cancers or breast cancer patients are alike, therefore treatment will vary with the individual.An individual's chance for recovery depends upon a number of factors such as:

• The stage of the cancer (whether it is just in the breast or has spread to other parts of the body)
• The type of breast cancer
• The certain characteristics of the cancer cells
• Your age and weight
• Menopausal status
• Overall state of health

Treatments for early breast cancer can include limpectomy (limited surgery which removes the cancer but not the entire breast) followed by radiation therapy, or breast reconstruction after mastectomy (surgical removal of the breast.) Additional treatment may include chemotherapy or hormone therapy. Biological therapy (using the body's own immune system to fight cancer) and bone marrow transplantation are new methods that are currently being tested in clinical trials. Often, two or more methods are used in combination.An individual with breast cancer should fully review all of the options with a physician before deciding upon the proper treatment program.Once breast cancer has been found, more test are conducted to see if the cancer has spread from the breast to other parts of the body. The spreading of cancer in this manner is called metastasis. Doctors need to know the stage of the disease - how large the tumor is, and if there are cancer cells beyond the breast - to plan the proper treatment.

Listed below are the basic stages of breast cancer:

STAGE I - The cancer is no wider than 2 centimeters (about 1 inch) and has not spread outside the breast.

Stage II - The tumor is more than 2 cm but less than 5 cm in the greatest dimension.

Stage III - Tumor is more than 5 cm in the greatest dimension.

Stage IV- Tumor of any size with growth extending to the chest wall or skin.

Even after an individual has been treated for breast cancer, it is possible for the cancer to come back (recur). However in most cases, the cancer can be treated, but usually cannot be cured, once the breast cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

What causes breast cancer?

Cancers have many different causes and sources. One of these sources is a group of chemicals called carcinogens. These carcinogens have been found in industrial pollutants, pesticides, and food additives. People who are exposed to these carcinogens through their occupation or other activities have been known to be more susceptible to cancer. The development of cancer also has been closely linked to heredity. A genetic mutation (a change in the genetic code) could be passed to a child through the sperm or egg. A family history of cancer could be due to a dominant gene that makes cancer more likely to be passed down from generation to generation.

Some of the following are symptoms that can be associated with cancer. The acronym, C.A.U.T.I.O.N., can remind us of the most common warning signs of cancer.

• C - Change in bowel or bladder habits
• A - A sore that does not heal
• U - Unusual bleeding or discharge
• T - Thickening or lump in the breast or any part of the body
• I - Indigestion or difficulty swallowing
• O - Obvious change in a wart or mole
• N - Nagging cough or hoarseness

(From "Cancer Facts", National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health)

What is the treatment for anal cancer?

Treatment for anal cancer will depend on various factors, including how big the tumor is, whether or not it has spread, where it is, and the general health of the patient. If the tumor is small it can be removed surgically, and that's it.

The type of surgery a patient will require depends on the size and position of the tumor.

Resection - this removes a small tumor and some surrounding tissue. This type of surgery can only be carried out if the anal sphincter is not sacrificed. Patients who undergo a resection do not have their ability to pass a bowel movement affected.

Abdominoperineal resection - the anus, rectum and a section of the bowel are surgically removed. The patient will need a colostomy - the end of the bowel is brought out onto the skin on the surface of the abdomen. A bag is placed over the stoma - the opening of the bowel - and collects the stools (feces) outside the patient's body. Although this sounds shocking, people with colostomies can lead normal lives, play sports and have active sex lives.

In most cases, the patient will probably have to undergo chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy

Radiotherapy combined with chemotherapy treatments (chemoradiation) are commonly used to destroy the anal cancer cells. Treatments are either given simultaneously or consecutively. This combined therapy approach has led to a much higher percentage of patients with an intact anal sphincter - survival and cure rates are good.

Chemotherapy uses cytotoxic drugs (antineoplastics) - cytotoxic drugs prevent the cancer cells from dividing. They are administered either by injection or orally.

Radiotherapy uses high-energy rays that destroy the cancer cells. This can be given by an external beam or internally (brachytherapy).

How is anal cancer diagnosed?

The first person to see will probably be a GP (general practitioner, primary care physician). The GP will ask the patient about his/her symptoms and carry out an examination. The doctor will also need to know about the patient's medical history. Then the patient will be referred to a colorectal surgeon - this is a doctor who specializes in bowel conditions. Colorectal surgeons are sometimes called proctologists. The specialist may carry out the following tests:

• A rectal examination - this may be a bit uncomfortable, but is not painful. A proctoscope or sigmoidoscope may be used - an instrument that allows the doctor to examine the area in more detail. In some countries this device is called an anoscope, and the procedure 'anoscopy'. The examination will determine whether the patient needs a biopsy.


• A biopsy - a small sample of tissue is taken from the anal area and sent to the lab for testing. Tissue will be examined under a microscope.

If cancerous tissue is detected after the biopsy the patient will need further tests to find out how advanced (big) the cancer is and whether or not it has spread. The following tests may be done:

• CT (computerized tomography) scan - X-rays are used to create a 3-dimensional picture of the target area.


• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan - magnets and radio waves produce 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional pictures of the target area.


• Ultrasound scan - sound waves are used to create an image of the target area. This could be done internally with a rectal ultrasound - the instrument is inserted into the anus before the scanning begins.

What Is Anal Cancer

Anal cancer occurs in the anus, the end of the gastrointestinal tract. Anal cancer is very different from colorectal cancer, which is much more common. Anal cancer's causes, risk factors, clinical progression, staging and treatment are all very different from colorectal cancer. Anal cancer is a lump which is created by the abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells in the anus.
Anal cancer is very rare. In the UK approximately 800 patients are diagnosed annually, out of a total population of 61 million (2009). According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 5,070 new cases of anal cancers were diagnosed in the USA in 2008, of which about 60% were women. Most anal cancer patients are diagnosed in their early 60s. Approximately 680 people died from anal cancer in the USA in 2008. The USA has a population of 300 million (2009). Reports indicate that the incidence of this type of cancer is rising. The number of anal cancer cases is increasing in both sexes, particularly among American men, and changing trends in sexual behavior.

How is mouth cancer diagnosed

A GP (general practitioner, primary care physician) will carry out a physical examination and ask the patient questions about his/her symptoms. If oral cancer is suspected the patient will be referred to either an oncologist or an ENT (ear, nose and throat) specialist. An oncologist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating cancers. ENT specialists are also known as Otolaryngologists.

• Biopsy - the doctor may take a small sample of tissue to see if there are cancerous cells. In most cases the patient will be under general anesthetic. In some instances, just a local anesthetic is used, especially if the biopsy involves taking a sample from the surface of the tissue (fine needle aspiration biopsy).

As soon as mouth cancer is diagnosed the doctor will determine the extent (stage) of the cancer. Tests to help staging may include:

• Endoscopy - the doctor passes a lighted scope down the patient's throat to see whether the cancer has spread beyond the mouth.


• Imaging tests - the following tests may help the doctor determine whether the cancer has spread:
  
  
  • X-rays
  • Computerized tomography (CT) scans
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans
  • PET (positron emission tomography) scans

Staging the cancer (identifying its stage) provides a universally understood definition of a particular cancer's progress. It helps in the planning of treatment protocol for that particular cancer, helps in determining prognosis (predicting likely outcomes), and also allows accurate end-results reporting.

What causes oral cancer

Cancer starts when the structure of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) alters - a genetic mutation. DNA provides the cells with a basic set of instructions, much like a computer program for life. The instructions tell cells when to grow, reproduce, and die, among other things. When there is a genetic mutation cells grow in an uncontrollable manner, eventually producing a lump (tumor).

If the cancer is left untreated it grows and eventually spreads to other parts of the body, usually through the lymphatic system - a series of nodes (glands) that exist throughout the body. The lymph glands produce many of the cells of our immune system. As soon as the cancer reaches the lymphatic system it can spread anywhere in the body and invade bones, blood and organs. The cancer cells continue reproducing uncontrollably, gradually occupying more and more space.

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form. Unlike regular cells, cancer cells do not experience programmatic death and instead continue to grow and divide. This leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grows out of control.

With time, oral cancer may spread firstly to other parts of the mouth, then the head and neck, and eventually to other parts of the body. Mouth cancers typically start in the squamous cells (flat, thin cells) than line the lips and the inside of the mouth - they are referred to as squamous cell carcinomas.

Although we know what the risk factors are, experts are not sure what cause the mutations in squamous cells that eventually lead to mouth cancer.

What are the signs and symptoms of oral cancer?

Most patients have no detectable symptoms during the early stages of oral cancer. Smokers, heavy drinkers should have regular checkups at the dentists' - dentists are often able to identify signs of oral cancer.

When signs and symptoms do appear, the typically include:

• Patches on the lining of the mouth or tongue, usually red or red and white in color.
• Mouth ulcers that do not go away.
• A sore that does not heal.
• A swelling in the mouth that persists for over three weeks.
• A lump or thickening of the skin or lining of the mouth.
• Pain when swallowing.
• Loosening teeth (tooth) for no clear reason.
• Dentures don't fit properly.
• Jaw pain.
• Jaw stiffness.
• Sore Thorat
  
• A sensation that something is stuck in your throat.
• Painful tongue.
• A hoarse voice.
• Pain in the neck that does not go away.

If you have some of these symptoms you should see our doctor. There are many other conditions and diseases with similar symptoms.

What Is Mouth Cancer?

Mouth cancer has the same meaning as oral cancer - it is cancer that occurs in any part of the mouth; on the tongue's surface, in the lips, inside the cheek, in the gums, in the roof and floor of the mouth, in the tonsils, and also the salivary glands.
Mouth cancer is a type of head and neck cancer, and is often treated similarly to other head and neck cancers.
34,000 Americans are diagnosed with oral or pharyngeal cancer each year, and about 8,000 die (annually). In England and Wales about 2,700 cases of oral cancer are diagnosed annually. Oral cancer kills approximately 920 people each year in England and Wales. Most oral cancer cases occur when the patient is at least 40 years old. It affects more men than women.

What is the treatment for malignant melanoma?

Dermatologists say that when melanoma is diagnosed in its earliest, most treatable stages, time is on your side. A study explained why early diagnosis and regular skin exams are vital for beating melanoma.

Compounds that exist in green vegetables, such as broccoli or cabbage could be a powerful drug against melanoma, say researchers from Penn State College of Medicine.

Treatment for malignant melanoma depends on several factors, the patient's..:

• Age
• General health
• Stage of cancer
• Personal preferences

A good doctor should set out to the patient all the different available treatments clearly, including their potential risks and side effects. It is sometimes advisable for the patient to seek out a second opinion if he/she is not sure. Some patients decide not to treat the melanoma, but rather to treat the symptoms the cancer is causing - this is more common among patients who have determined that treatment will not significantly extend their life expectancy.

Treating early-stage melanoma treatment - Stage 1 Melanoma

• Surgical removal
  
  In many cases, all that is needed is the removal of the melanoma (surgical excision), and that's it. If the melanoma is very thin it is most likely that all of it was removed during the biopsy and no further treatment is required. Most surgeons will take out the cancer as well as a small border of normal skin and a layer of tissue below the skin to optimize the chances that all the cancer is eliminated.
  
  Surgeons used to more commonly take out a large border of skin and then the patient would have skin graft. However, it seems that if the surgeon takes out smaller amounts of healthy tissue this is just as effective for many cases of invasive melanomas. The advantage of not taking out too much healthy tissue is that a skin graft is not required.

Stages 2 and 3 melanoma treatments

• Surgical removal and possible removal of nearby lymph nodes
  
  As well as removing any affected area of skin, sometimes the surgeon has to remove a nearby lymph nodes as well in case cancerous cells are present there - this is called a block dissection and the patient is given a general anesthetic. If lymph nodes are removed there is a risk that the patient's lymphatic system will be disrupted and he/she can develop lymphedema. Lymphedema patients experience a build-up of fluids in their limbs.


• Interferon
  
  After surgery the patient may be given interferon. Interferon can reduce the chances of melanoma recurrence. Interferon encourages the body's immune system to fight off any remaining cancer cells. Most patients are given three interferon injections each week. Many patients can learn how to inject themselves - meaning they do not have to leave home for treatment. How long this treatment lasts depends on several factors, including how advanced the melanoma is.
  
  Interferon treatment may have the following side effects, which can be quite bad at first:
  
  
  • Chills
  • Fever
  • Joint pain
  • Tiredness (fatigue)
  The following side effects are also possible, but less common:
  • Vomiting
  • Nausea
  • Irritation at injection site
  • Hair loss
  • Pins and needles in the hands and toes
  • Depression
  • Mood changes
  • Infertility
  • Higher susceptibility to infection
  • Alterations in heart rhythm
  • Alterations in blood pressure
  
  After the second and third doses the side effects start to subside. Patients should report any less common side-effects to their doctor, who may consider offering another treatment. Most patients are monitored closely while on interferon treatment, this may include regular blood tests, urine tests, and blood pressure checks.

Stage 4 melanoma treatment

At this point the chances of a cure are improbable. However, it is possible to slow down progression of the cancer and help the patient to live longer. The following treatments are available:

• Interferon treatment (details above in Stage 2 and 3 treatments).


• Chemotherapy - cells are destroyed with the aid of drugs. Doctors will usually administer at least two drugs simultaneously, either intravenously, orally or both. Chemotherapy, which is often resistant to melanoma, is sometimes used to relieve the symptoms of patients with advanced metastatic melanoma.
  
  Side effects may include:
  
  
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting
  • Hair loss
  • Tiredness (fatigue)
  • Weakened immune system
  
  In the vast majority of cases symptoms will subside as soon as treatment has finished.


• Radiation therapy (radiotherapy) - High energy X-rays are targeted at the cancer cells and destroy them. Radiotherapy is also used to relieve symptoms of patients with advanced metastatic melanoma.
  
  Side effects may include:
  
  
  • Tiredness (fatigue)
  • Loss of appetite
  • Hair loss
  • Sore skin
  • Lower libido (lack of interest in sex)
  • Nausea
  
  Side effects may persist for several weeks, or even months after treatment has stopped.


• Clinical trials - some doctors may suggest participating in a clinical trial. A clinical trial is a study of a drug that has not yet been approved by the regulatory authorities. It usually involves a certain number of participants who either take the trial drug, an existing drug, or a placebo. Anyone who enrolls in a clinical trial has the opportunity to try out evolving therapies. The downside is that the outcome is unclear, as well as the side effects. Currently (June 2009) the following therapies are in clinical trials for malignant melanoma: chemoimmunotherapy, gene therapy, targeted therapy, and vaccine treatment.

Three main types of ovarian cancers (tumors)

Epithelial ovarian cancer is by far the most common form of ovarian cancer. Germ cell and stromal ovarian cancers are much less common. Ovarian cancer can also result from a cancer somewhere else in the body that has spread:

• Epithelial ovarian cancer (epithelial ovarian tumors) - derived from cells on the surface of the ovary. It occurs mainly in adults.


• Germ cell ovarian cancer (germ cell ovarian tumors) - derived from the egg-producing cells within the body of the ovary. This rare type of cancer more commonly affects children and teenage girls.


• Stromal ovarian ovarian (sex cord stromal tumors) - develops within the cells that hold the ovaries together.


• Cancers from other organs in the body can spread to the ovaries - metastatic cancers - a metastatic cancer is one that spreads from where it first arose as a primary tumor to other locations in the body.

What causes lymphoma?

Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that uncontrollably grow and do not die. Normal cells in the body follow an orderly path of growth, division, and death. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer results. Scientists do not know exactly what causes lymphoma, but they have identified several potential risk factors.

Genetics

Lymphoma can be the result of a genetic predisposition that is inherited from family members. It is possible to be born with certain genetic mutations or a fault in a gene that makes one statistically more likely to develop cancer later in life.

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are a class of substances that are directly responsible for damaging DNA, promoting or aiding cancer. Exposure to certain pesticides, herbicides, and solvents such as benzene has been associated with lymphoma. Similarly, black hair dye has been linked to higher rates of NHL. When our bodies are exposed to carcinogens, free radicals are formed that try to steal electrons from other molecules in the body. These free radicals damage cells, affecting their ability to function normally, and the result can be cancerous growths.

Other medical factors

As we age, there is an increase in the number of possible cancer-causing mutations in our DNA. The risk of NHL increases as we age, and HL is most common between ages 16-34 and 55 years and older. Additional medical conditions that have been associated with higher lymphoma rates include infection with HIV, human T-lymphocytic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), Epstein-Barr virus, Helicobacter pylori, or hepatitis B or C; autoimmune disease (such as lupus); diseases that require therapies that suppress the immune system; and any other immunodeficiency diseases.

What causes leukemia?

Experts say that different leukemias have different causes. The following are either known causes, or strongly suspected causes:

• Artificial ionizing radiation
• Viruses - HTLV-1 (human T-lymphotropic virus) and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
• Benzene and some petrochemicals
• Alkylating chemotherapy agents used in previous cancers
• Maternal fetal transmission (rare)
• Hair dyes
• Genetic predisposition - some studies researching family history and looking at twins have indicated that some people have a higher risk of developing leukemia because of a single gene or multiple genes.
• Down syndrome - people with Down syndrome have a significantly higher risk of developing leukemia, compared to people who do not have Down syndrome. Experts say that because of this, people with certain chromosomal abnormalities may have a higher risk.
• Electromagnetic energy - studies indicate there is not enough evidence to show that ELF magnetic (not electric) fields that exist currently might cause leukemia. The IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) says that studies which indicate there is a risk tend to be biased and unreliable.

What is Lung Cancer?

Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth, and lung cancer occurs when this uncontrolled cell growth begins in one or both lungs. Rather than developing into healthy, normal lung tissue, these abnormal cells continue dividing and form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors. Tumors interfere with the main function of the lung, which is to provide the bloodstream with oxygen to be carried to the entire body. If a tumor stays in one spot and demonstrates limited growth, it is generally considered to be benign.

More dangerous, or malignant, tumors form when the cancer cells migrate to other parts of the body through the blood or lymph system. When a tumor successfully spreads to other parts of the body and grows, invading and destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to have metastasized. This process itself is called metastasis, and the result is a more serious condition that is very difficult to treat.

Lung cancer is called "primary" if the cancer originates in the lungs and "secondary" if it originates elsewhere in the body but has metastasized to the lungs. These two types are considered different cancers from diagnostic and treatment perspectives.

In 2007, about 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 29% of all cancer deaths were due to lung cancer. It is the number one cause of death from cancer every year and the second most diagnosed after breast and prostate cancers (for women and men, respectively). Lung cancer is usually found in older persons because it develops over a long period of time.

What is Pancreatic Cancer? Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms and Causes-Part1

What Is The Pancreas?

The pancreas is a 6-inch long organ located behind the stomach in the back of the abdomen. It is spongy and shaped somewhat like a fish, extended horizontally across the abdomen. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen where the stomach is attached to the first part of the small intestine (the duodenum). The tail of the pancreas - its narrowest part - extends to the left side of the abdomen next to the spleen.

The pancreas contains exocrine and endocrine glands that create pancreatic juices, hormones, and insulin. Pancreatic juices, or enzymes, made by the exocrine glands are released into the intestines by way of a series of ducts in order to help digest fat, proteins, and carbohydrates. Over 95% of the pancreas is made up of exocrine glands and ducts. The endocrine cells are arranged in small clusters called islets of Langerhans, which release insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream. These two hormones manage levels of sugar in the blood. When they are not working properly, the result is often diabetes.

Researching The Cause Of Programmed Cell Death

Walter and Eliza Hall Institute researchers have put an end to a 10-year debate over which form of a molecular messenger called Fas ligand is responsible for killing cells during programmed cell death (also called apoptosis).

Apoptosis is an important process in human biology as it removes unwanted and dangerous cells from our bodies, protecting us against cancer development and diseases where the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, such as in lupus or insulin-dependent diabetes.

This cell death process can be activated by proteins on the surface of cells. The most prominent of these cell surface proteins is Fas ligand, which exists in two forms - membrane-bound or secreted - and binds to a surface receptor called Fas. Professor Andreas Strasser, co-head of the institute's Molecular Genetics of Cancer division (with Professor Jerry Adams), has been looking to settle a decade-long scientific debate by investigating whether membrane-bound Fas ligand, secreted Fas ligand, or both, cause cell death.

"There has been a lot of debate among the scientific community over which of the forms causes cell death but also which of the forms may induce an inflammatory response," Professor Strasser said. "What we have shown is that it is the membrane-bound Fas ligand that is essential for cell death and is therefore the body's guardian against lymphadenopathy (the swelling of lymph nodes), autoimmunity and cancer."

Professor Strasser's research, done in collaboration with Dr Lorraine O'Reilly and Ms Lin Tai from the Molecular Genetics of Cancer division and Dr Lorraine Robb from the Cancer and Haematology division, has been published in the international journal Nature.

The research also demonstrated that although secreted Fas ligand does not have a role in cell killing, too much secreted Fas can promote tumour development and autoimmunity.

"In certain autoimmune conditions and types of lymphoma/leukaemia there is massive over-production of secreted Fas ligand. Since our research shows that secreted Fas is pro-inflammatory, and therefore detrimental, and since the aforementioned disease states are characterised by inflammatory tissue destruction, it may be possible to alleviate some of the manifestations of these diseases by neutralising the secreted Fas ligand with antibodies or soluble receptors," Professor Strasser said.

Now the roles of membrane-bound and secreted Fas ligand have been clearly defined, Professor Strasser's team is investigating the molecular pathways that are activated by a surplus of secreted Fas ligand and their role in autoimmune conditions and lymphomas/leukaemias.

The research was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, the US Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, the National Institutes of Health and the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation.

Source:
Penny Fannin
Walter and Eliza Hall Institute

Migraines 'mean less cancer risk'

Women who suffer regular migraines may have the comfort of knowing they face a much lower risk of breast cancer, say US researchers.

The discovery points to the potential importance of hormone levels in both.

The study of 3,412 women suggests a 30% lower risk for people with a history of disabling headaches.

However, the researchers, from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, warned more work was needed to confirm the link.